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Author Topic: 🚩 Global Climate Chaos ☠️  (Read 117015 times)

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AGelbert

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Re: 🚩 Global Climate Chaos ☠️
« Reply #315 on: September 21, 2015, 09:20:00 pm »
IPCC Ice melt predictions way off!:   
:



"Conclusions" still lack punch but at least major action to prevent an increase in emissions is clearly stated. In the lecture itself, stopping emissions altogether is clearly established as the only way to stop the ice melt altogether:





Quote
May 12, 2015 - FEEM Lecture: "Arctic Amplification, Climate Change, Global Warming"
Published on Jun 5, 2015
FEEM Lecture by Peter Wadhams, Professor of Ocean Physics, University of Cambridge: "Arctic Amplification, Climate Change, Global Warming. New Challenges from the Top of the World"
« Last Edit: September 23, 2015, 10:25:49 pm by AGelbert »
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AGelbert

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Re: 🚩 Global Climate Chaos ☠️
« Reply #316 on: September 22, 2015, 03:01:03 am »
The Other CO2 Problem

The Permian Mass Extinction 251.9 million years ago, otherwise known as “The Great Dying,” was the closest this planet has come to extinguishing all complex life on Earth. Around 90% of all species died out in this single event, a worse toll even than the Cretaceous extinction that wiped out the dinosaurs.

LIP = Large Igneous Province 

Human = Human emissions from burning fossil fuels

CO32- = Carbonate

CCD = Carbonate Compensation Depth


The graphic  below is a comparison of the Permian Extinction conditions with our present conditions.
How oceans get overwhelmed by rapid large CO2 emissions from Large Igneous Province (LIP) eruptions and human emissions. CCD = Carbonate Compensation Depth, CO32- = carbonate. Based on text in Zeebe, Annual Reviews 2012.
http://www.skepticalscience.com/Lee-commentary-on-Burgess-et-al-PNAS-Permian-Dating.html

Agelbert NOTE: This compendium of quotes will discuss the existential threat to marine species (and also to us, because we eat them) that lower pH of salt water (the LOWER the pH, the MORE acidic the water is) constitutes. The increased concentration of CO2 from the burning of fossil fuels is what causes the ocean to increase in acidity through lowered pH. Lowered pH actually means that you have more H+ ions in the water. It is somewhat counterintuitive to tell somebody with not much of a science background that lowering pH raises the acidity. But that's the way the math on PH. works.

Mollusca (məlŭs`kə), taxonomic name for the one of the largest phyla of invertebrate animals (Arthropoda is the largest) comprising more than 50,000 living mollusk species and about 35,000 fossil species dating back to the Cambrian period. Mollusks are soft-bodied, and most have a prominent shell.

The members of this highly successful and diverse phylum are mostly aquatic and include the familiar scallop, clam , oyster, mussel, snail, slug, squid, cuttlefish, octopus, chiton, and a variety of others.

Mollusks occupy habitats ranging from the deep ocean to shallow waters to moist terrestrial niches.

The Shell

The shell is formed by secretions of glandular cells in the mantle. Except in the chitons, the shells of all mollusks are basically similar, differing only in certain mineralogical details. The shell is composed of an outer, prismatic layer containing densely packed cells of calcareous material secreted by the edge of the mantle; and an inner, nacreous layer of thin, laminated plates of calcareous material laid down by the entire mantle surface.

http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/phylum+Mollusca


 Mollusks in Peril: Why Should We Care?
By José H. Leal, Ph.D.

SNIPPET:

 The Domino Effect. Organisms in natural ecosystems and food webs are all interconnected, and any disturbance that negatively affects one species (such as its permanent extinction) is likely to provoke a negative chain reaction that will interfere with a much larger number of species, in a cumulative and fast-paced manner.

For instance, the extinction of a clam will negatively affect all species that eat that clam, and these adverse effects on the predators will in turn rapidly propagate within the food web.

If enough species are critically affected, not only is the balance of nature forever altered, but our own fate as a species may be endangered in the long run.

Because mollusks are such a large and widespread group, changes affecting mollusks as a group are potentially capable of having massive and irreversible effects on the planet’s biodiversity.

The Global Threats to Marine Species. Aside from localized problems in the coastal marine environment such as domestic and industrial pollution, development, urban and agricultural encroachment, and other geographically restricted sources of environmental degradation, marine mollusks are threatened by generalized, more widespread disturbances such as those associated with climate change.

For instance, coral bleaching, the critical loss of energy-giving coral zooxanthellae caused by changes in ocean temperature, is now a global problem, affecting large areas in the marine tropics of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans. The global “hot spots” for molluscan diversity coincide with coral reefs, as these latter are associated with a very large number of shallow-water molluscan species. As coral reefs decline, so will all the organisms connected with them.

The Threat of Ocean Acidification. Ocean acidification is caused by the increased uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide by sea water. More acidic sea water affects the shells of planktonic mollusks, thinning and opening holes in those delicate structures.

Acidification is already a threat to several species of planktonic mollusks, including sea butterflies (pteropods). Sea butterflies are key links in open-ocean food webs, serving as food for many species of fish, which in turn feed larger animals such as sea birds, whales, and even polar bears.

http://www.shellmuseum.org/downloadable-files/Leal_Mollusks_in_Peril_Why_do_We_Care.pdf



Potential Impacts of Ocean Acidification

Impacts on Calcifying Species

SNIPPETS:

As the United Kingdom’s Royal Society recently observed,
Quote
“Seawater pH is a critical variable in marine systems; even small changes will have a large impact on ocean chemistry.”
The changes in ocean chemistry precipitated by acidification are likely to exert profound and highly adverse impacts on ocean species and ecosystems.

The saturation of seawater with carbonate ions is extremely important for marine species that construct their shells or skeletons with limestone (calcium carbonate, CaCO3) in a process known as calcification. These species include most corals, mollusks, echinoderms, foraminifera, and calcareous algae.

A free-swimming pteropod, Limacina helicina, a mollusc that forms a calcium carbonate shell made of aragonite. They are an important food source for juvenile North Pacific salmon and also are eaten by mackerel, herring, and cod.

The shells and skeletons of such species do not dissolve because the upper layers of the ocean are supersaturated with calcium (Ca2+) and carbonate ions. However, as the pH of the oceans drops as a consequence of rising levels of carbon dioxide, carbonate levels begin to drop, ultimately resulting in an undersaturation of carbonate ions, which in turn impairs the calcification process.

A recent study on rapid climate change and ocean acidification appearing in Science concluded that oceanic carbonate concentrations will drop below 200 µmol kg-1 when atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations reach 450-550ppm, a scenario that may occur by the middle of this century.

At that point, the rates of calcification by coral polyps will be exceeded by reef erosion, which in conjunction with the impacts of increasing temperatures, may “reduce coral reef ecosystems to crumbling frameworks with few calcareous corals.” By the end of the century, climate scientist Ken Caldeira—who with Michael Wickett originally coined the term “ocean acidification”—concludes that “there is no place left with the kind of chemistry where corals grow today.”

The diminution of reefs could also result in half or more of coral-associated fauna becoming rare or extinct.


Massive declines in coral reefs could have grave environmental and socio-economic implications. Coral reefs are among the most diverse ecosystems in the world. While covering only 0.17 percent of the ocean floor, coral provide habitat for one quarter of all marine species.

Agelbert NOTE: What you just read exposes the gravity of the extinction threat to marine species, including Pacific salmon, mackerel, herring, and cod (among many, many others). Also, 25% of the ocean's marine life that relies on coral reef habitats is threatened with extinction.

I'm NOT sorry to be alarmist  ;) , but what you just read was not the worst of the multiple species extinction threats due to a CO2 caused SLIGHT lowering in pH.

The following is horrendously alarming because it involves the threat to 70% of the global calcium carbonate precipitation done by plankton. Yes, this huge source of marine food is threatened with extinction by decreased pH. But a rapid extinction rate, which is ensured by ocean acidification, would trigger ANOTHER positive feedback mechanism exacerbating global warming!

While corals are the most prominent calcifying organisms in the world’s oceans, they account for only 10 percent of global calcium carbonate production.

Quote
70 percent of global calcium carbonate precipitation is contributed by several groups of planktonic organisms, including coccolithophores, foraminifera, and pteropods, many of which are extremely important components of ocean ecosystems.

One study concluded that a doubling of present-day concentrations of carbon dioxide could result in a 20 to 40 percent reduction in biogenic calcification of coccolithophores, resulting in malformed calcareous plates and layers of plates, while another concluded that coccolithophores exposed to carbon dioxide levels triple those of the present day could lose half their protective coatings.

The particulate organic material of coccolithophores sinks and contributes substantially to carbon mineralization deep in the water column. A reduction in the transport of organic carbon to the deep ocean would diminish the flux of food to benthic organisms.

Agelbert Note:
Benthic organisms are life forms that live in and on the bottom of the ocean floor.

Additionally, the decline of coccolithophore in an ecosystem can result in a shift to a diatom-dominated phytoplankton community, which can restructure an ecosystem at all trophic levels.


Diminution of coccolithophores could also amplify global warming trends for several reasons.

Chalky coccolithophore blooms can extend over hundreds of thousands of square kilometers, and when blooming, lighten the surface of the ocean and reflect substantial amounts of sunlight back towards space. Substantial reductions in their numbers might thus accelerate warming because more incoming solar radiation would be absorbed by the oceans.

Moreover, coccolithophores produce substantial amounts of dimethylsulphide, which account for substantial portions of atmospheric sulphate particles around which cloud droplets grow.

Reductions in cloud development might ultimately result in additional warming, as some clouds reflect incoming solar radiation back to space.

Finally, calcium carbonate is very dense, and acts as ballast, which serves to accelerate the deposition of particulate carbon in the deep ocean.

A reduction in calcium carbonate production thus could ultimately imperil a mechanism that helps remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, potentially intensifying the greenhouse effect.

A recent study concluded that decreases in ocean pH by 0.5 units or more may severely disrupt the internal acid-base balance of sea urchins, which can ultimately result in their death.

Cephalopods such as squid might be particularly affected by increased oceanic carbon dioxide because they require very high amounts of oxygen supply to the blood to sustain their energy-demanding method of swimming. Lower levels of pH can impair oxygen supplies in these species, reducing oxygen capacity by about 50 percent with a pH decrease of 0.25 units.


Conclusion

As the Royal Society of the United Kingdom concluded in its study of ocean acidification,

Quote

 “Without significant action to reduce CO2 emissions into the atmosphere, this may mean that there will be no place in the future oceans for many of the species and ecosystems that we know today.”

While warming associated with rising levels of carbon dioxide certainly warrants the steadfast commitment of the world’s major emitters to reverse this trend, the “other CO2 problem” may provide an equal or even more compelling rationale.

One can only hope that the world’s policymakers will mobilize more quickly to address this issue than was the case with climate change.   

 
http://www.terrain.org/articles/21/burns.htm

Agelbert NOTE: Congratulations. You managed to reach this point without your eyes glazing over. Feel free to pass it on. Perhaps we can delay our funeral, even if it looks like Pacific Salmon will be off the menu soon.  :(

Please remember that, even if every human on earth dies tomorrow, the acidity will continue to increase for about forty years. That means that most of the species mentioned above will go extinct even though we are not around to overfish them.

The collapse of human civilization WILL NOT solve this problem. Active measures by us to restore the proper life preserving ocean chemistry is the only hope that marine species have.

The only responsible course of action is to stop the CO2 emissions NOW and begin to act aggressively to return the atmosphere to 280 ppm of CO2. As long as we continue to burn fossil fuels, we guarantee massive marine life extinctions.

I started this article with the  Mollusks because virtually ALL the fish we eat feed on them. For those who understand biosphere math at the different trophic (eating) levels, that means that the biomass of mollusks is must be least ten times that of the large fish vertebrates that feed on them.

The reason for that is that energy is lost when one life form eats another from digestion inefficiencies. Life forms are far more efficient than machines, but they still lose a lot of energy when transferring the stored energy of the prey animal to the predator.

There is NO equivalence in biomass between mollusks and the predator fish that eat them. Please remember that. If you lose the mollusks, you lose about 90% of the marine biomass of the sum of the mollusks and the predator fish.

So, the loss of a large percentage of the mollusks alone is a catastrophe for vertebrate marine life.

The mollusks are in peril. When they can't make a prober shell, they will have no protection and will be eaten before they can reproduce. End of story. 

When the mollusk prey, ten times the biomass of the predators, dies off, the predators go extinct too. This is not hard.

On top of all that, the plankton difficulties with CO2 will accelerate global warming!

Ocean acidification is a major extinction threat to marine species. ANYONE that tells you that marine species can "adapt" to the increased ocean acidity within a few decades (or even a century) is worthy of derision.

« Last Edit: September 23, 2015, 03:24:29 pm by AGelbert »
He that loveth father or mother more than me is not worthy of me: and he that loveth son or daughter more than me is not worthy of me. Matt 10:37

AGelbert

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Re: 🚩 Global Climate Chaos ☠️
« Reply #317 on: September 22, 2015, 03:48:34 am »


Quote
Above image illustrates why the situation in 2015 is even more threatening than it was in 2012. Only the ice that is colored light green, yellow and red is more than 3 meters thick. In 2015, ocean heat has been melting the sea ice from underneath. So, even while the currently lower temperatures of the air may have resulted in a slight increase in extent over the past week, the added ice is very thin. Ocean heat first of all goes into melting the thickest sea ice, i.e. the parts that are meters below the surface. This because the water at surface level is colder than the water underneath the surface. This explains why much of the water surface will remain covered by (very thin) ice as air temperatures are now falling (compared to air temperatures over the past few months).

 The image below (at link) shows sea surface temperatures as at September 17, 2015.

Excellent article on what is really going on in the Arctic ice cap.   



 
Friday, September 18, 2015 Arctic Sea Ice Collapse Threatens - Update 9

http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/2015/09/arctic-sea-ice-collapse-threatens-update-9.html
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AGelbert

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Re: 🚩 Global Climate Chaos ☠️
« Reply #318 on: September 22, 2015, 07:04:42 pm »
Leonardo DiCaprio Pledges to Divest From Fossil Fuels as Movement Grows 50-Fold in One Year

Stefanie Spear | September 22, 2015 11:38 am

The global movement to divest from fossil fuels and invest in renewable energy has exploded, topping at $2.6 trillion and growing 50-fold in just one year, according to a new analysis released today.

To date, 430 institutions and 2,040 individuals have pledged to divest from fossil fuels from governments and investors in 43 countries and multiple sectors, including pension funds, health, education, philanthropy, faith, entertainment, climate justice and municipalities, the report from Arabella Advisors found.


Quote

The California Public Employees’ Retirement System, the Norway Pension Fund, the Canadian Medical Association, the World Council of Churches, the University of California system, Leonardo DiCaprio and the Leonardo DiCaprio Foundation have all made recent commitments to divest from fossil fuels.

Quote
“Climate change is severely impacting the health of our planet and all of its inhabitants, and we must transition to a clean energy economy that does not rely on fossil fuels, the main driver of this global problem,
said actor and environmentalist Leonardo DiCaprio, who announced his commitment today.

“After looking into the growing movement to divest from fossil fuels and invest in climate solutions, I was convinced to make the pledge on behalf of myself and the Leonardo DiCaprio Foundation. Now is the time to divest and invest to let our world leaders know that we, as individuals and institutions, are taking action to address climate change, and we expect them to do their part this December in Paris at the U.N. climate talks.”

Today’s report measured the global growth of the fossil fuel divestment and clean energy investment movement, finding that:

•Pledges have spread to sectors not traditionally associated with divestment, including pension funds and private companies.

•Climate risk to investment portfolios is helping drive the exponential growth of divestment.

•While historically focused in the United States, the divestment movement now spans the globe.

•Thanks to increasing commitments to invest and a proliferation of fossil free products, more capital is flowing toward climate solutions.

•The faith community is making a strong case for the moral responsibility to act on climate and to provide clean energy access to the world’s poor, bolstering the divestment movement.

•University commitments have nearly tripled in the past year.

•Divestment by state and local governments worldwide is also growing.

•Foundation pledges have grown rapidly.

“The Arabella Report shows that more and more investors are reducing their carbon risk today and diversifying their portfolios with the goal to harness the upside in the sustainable clean growth industries of the future,” said Thomas Van Dyck, managing director-financial advisor of SRI Wealth Management Group. “That underscores what I see every day as a financial advisor–that the demand for fossil-free investment products is increasing.”

In a video statement at today’s press conference in New York City where the findings of the report were unveiled, Christiana Figueres, executive secretary of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change said, “Investing at scale in clean, efficient power offers one of the clearest, no regret choices ever presented to human progress.”

Earlier this month, Citigroup released a report asking: given the economic, environmental and public health benefits of transitioning to a low-carbon future, why would you not take action on climate change? The report found that taking action to cut carbon pollution and slow global warming by investing in energy efficiency and renewable power generation would result in a positive return on investment, ultimately saving trillions of dollars.

“This shift in investment flows is especially critical for underserved communities and people living in poverty, who are disproportionately affected by the negative impacts of climate change,” said Rev. Lennox Yearwood, Jr., president and CEO of Hip Hop Caucus. “Climate change hits the poor first and worst. It is a racial and economic justice issue that must be addressed with solutions like the Divest-Invest movement to empower these communities, eliminate health disparities and drive the shift to a clean energy economy.”

Today’s report concludes that the divest-invest movement has reached new heights as world leaders will come together Nov. 30 – Dec. 11 at the UN climate negotiations in Paris. The report finds that the rapid growth of the divest-invest movement indicates the urgency many people are feeling to quickly transition toward a low-carbon economy and, based on growth trends over the past two years, momentum will likely continue to build regardless of the outcome at COP21 in Paris.

“If these numbers tell us anything, it’s that the divestment movement is catching fire,” said May Boeve, executive director of 350.org. “Since starting on the campuses of a few colleges in the U.S., this movement has struck a chord with people across the world who care about climate change, and convinced some of the largest and most influential institutions in the world to begin pulling their money out of climate destruction. That makes me hopeful for our future, and it’s sending a clear message to world leaders as they head into Paris: It’s time for them to follow suit, and divest our governments from fossil fuel companies too.”

http://ecowatch.com/2015/09/22/dicaprio-divest-fossil-fuels/
He that loveth father or mother more than me is not worthy of me: and he that loveth son or daughter more than me is not worthy of me. Matt 10:37

AGelbert

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Re: 🚩 Global Climate Chaos ☠️
« Reply #319 on: September 24, 2015, 01:03:42 am »
Late Permian CO2 levels were broadly similar to today.

Mid Permian levels were higher at around 1000 to 2000 ppm, but early Permian CO2 levels were at today's levels or below (there was a significant ice age then).

Quote
We report that greenhouse [CO2]atm have been significantly overestimated because previously assumed soil CO2 concentrations during carbonate formation are too high.

More accurate [CO2]atm, resulting from better constraints on soil CO2, indicate that large (1,000s of ppmV) fluctuations in [CO2]atm did not characterize ancient climates and that past greenhouse climates were accompanied by concentrations similar to those projected for A.D. 2100.

CO2 concentrations during ancient greenhouse climates were similar to those predicted for A.D. 2100

The biggest individual flow and pipe degassing events are considered by workers in the field to have taken place over a 1-100 year timeframe.

By showing that the Permian emissions occurred faster than the slow compensation mechanisms (weathering etc.) and at rates in the ballpark of modern emissions, from CO2 levels not far off modern values (geologically speaking), Burgess et al have shown that we can't rule out a Permian-like (or Triassic-like, etc) event at the extreme end, with business-as-usual emissions continuing.
http://www.skepticalscience.com/Lee-commentary-on-Burgess-et-al-PNAS-Permian-Dating.html

Mass Extinction: Life at the Brink Smithsonian

CO2 projected 2100 rise
http://www.smithsonianchannel.com/videos/mass-extinction-life-at-the-brink/33962

If the above is not as near as our science can get to the certainty that there is a high probability of N.T.H.E., I don't know what is.

Incremental measures = BUSINESS AS USUAL = N.T.H.E. This is not hard to understand.


He that loveth father or mother more than me is not worthy of me: and he that loveth son or daughter more than me is not worthy of me. Matt 10:37

AGelbert

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Re: 🚩 Global Climate Chaos ☠️
« Reply #320 on: September 24, 2015, 01:06:18 am »

The only way to approach this situation is to demand all fossil fuels stop being burned. I will never agree with you that we need them.

I have never argued that we need Fossil Fuels.  In fact I argue precisely the opposite, that Homo Sap did fine without them for millenia.  I argue that we can return to Stone Age technology (with some improvements) and live a rich, intellectually and culturally diverse life without all the Bling we seem to think is necessary now.

The Polynesians did it.


They built those boats with all stone age technology.  No metal hardware whatsoever.

DONE ONCE, IT CAN BE DONE AGAIN.

RE

I won't argue the point.  Sails are cool!   


But there is an issue with the collapse scenario you may not have taken into consideration.

As you know, the ocean served as a CO2 sink for the greater part of the industrial revolution, thereby masking the seriousness of the CO2 pollution existential threat to humanity. Now, as the scientist in the Arctic lecture I posted today said, the ocean is undergoing what they call "sink degradation". That's another way of saying that it CANNOT keep sucking in CO2 at the rate it has been doing for over a century until about 2010.

Each year it's rate of CO2 absorption is slowing.

Since the rate we are emitting CO2 is NOT slowing, the atmosphere has another positive feedback goosing warming.

And, of course, the 40 years of baked in CO2 is still being emitted at increased rates as well because 40 years ago our CO2 emissions were accelerating like crazy.

The ocean CO2 emissions CLOCK is at around 1975. If we had STOPPED burning fossil fuels in 1975, NOW the oceans would begin to heal and the parts per million in the atmosphere would have reached their zenith of a  little less than 400PPM or so. Yep, CO2 is VERY persistent, once it gets in the atmosphere. And through the hypothetical 40 year period without fossil fuel burning, the oceans would be emitting right up to the present.

A cursory glance at the industrial activity of the human civilization since 1975 only leaves the brain damaged wishful thinkers with any hope that we can put a lid on atmospheric CO2 before they reach Permian extinction levels.

We have plus 4 degrees C above baseline (pre-industrial civilization) ensured if we stop burning fossil fuels TODAY. Man has never walked the earth in a climate over plus 3.3C from baseline.

But it gets worse.

There is another mechanism threatening the chances of those rooting for collapse to save the hide of a small percentage of humans.
That is particulate matter emitted by industrial civilization that, like the ocean CO2 sink I mention, masks global warming by providing some aerosol caused dimming.

We have a hell of high temperature baked in with the 4C mark.

But guess what happens when civilization collapses? The temperature JUMPS about ONE degree!


So all that "happy talk" about a collapse saving the good guys because 90% of humanity buys the farm is wishful thinking.

WHY? Because when all that particulate matter isn't there because all the factories and other machines that emit STOP emitting, the air clears within days to a few weeks and the sun becomes ANOTHER positive feedback mechanism jacking up the temperature.   

Sorry, I couldn't resist bringing in the doom smileys ;D. And no more Alaskan mountain pictures, please. I know you'll be holed up in the mountains. It's still gonna be a major challenge to survive. What do you do for water in the mountains if it DOES NOT RAIN?

The lack of clouds (see my post on "the other CO2 problem" of ocean acidification killing the critters than produce a cloud making chemical) is still another positive feedback mechanism.

And trees ALSO make that chemical. If you got a giant tree die off, your cloud cover is further reduced. That ANOTHER positive feedback mechanism to heat the cr ap out the vegetation left and kill more trees.

The dying plankton that no longer turn white (for up to a thousand square miles or so) when they are blooming is still another positive feedback mechanism enabling the oceans to absorb MORE heat.

The noble savages surviving the human cull will have to deal with a world that CONTINUES to warm rapidly for AT LEAST a century. And the staying power of that CO2 causing that heat is estimated by credentialed atmospheric scientists (this is WITHOUT any emissions whatsoever!) to be not less than a 1,000 years.

These screen shots below are from a Guy McPherson lecture but the data has NOTHING to do with his opinions. As you can see (the  literature references), it is hard science, not hyperbole or scaremongering.



He that loveth father or mother more than me is not worthy of me: and he that loveth son or daughter more than me is not worthy of me. Matt 10:37

AGelbert

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Re: 🚩 Global Climate Chaos ☠️
« Reply #321 on: September 24, 2015, 03:22:25 pm »
Professor Bron Taylor Warns about extinctions


We are looking at the first human-made extinction – environmental scientist
Published on Mar 19, 2015

A new study published in the magazine 'Science' claims that humans are pushing the last boundaries the planet has in making life habitable, already speeding past limits for climate change and excessive species extinction, deforestation and ocean acidification.

RT’s Ben Swann sits down with religion and nature professor Bron Taylor at the University of Florida to discuss the current impact we are making on the planet and the possible outcomes if we do not change our course.
He that loveth father or mother more than me is not worthy of me: and he that loveth son or daughter more than me is not worthy of me. Matt 10:37

AGelbert

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Re: 🚩 Global Climate Chaos ☠️
« Reply #322 on: September 25, 2015, 03:35:24 am »

Elizabeth Kolbert: Field Notes from a Catastrophe

"Science tells us where we are going, but we refuse to see".
He that loveth father or mother more than me is not worthy of me: and he that loveth son or daughter more than me is not worthy of me. Matt 10:37

AGelbert

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Re: 🚩 Global Climate Chaos ☠️
« Reply #323 on: September 26, 2015, 05:24:02 pm »
Hat tip to K-Dog. 


From the Siberian Times






Scientists from the respected Trofimuk Institute of Petroleum Geology and Geophysics insist the process by which a series of craters formed was caused by the melting of gas hydrates and the emission of methane. Picture: Vladimir Olenchenko/Trofimuk Institute of Petroleum Geology and Geophysics

A new expedition to one of the mysterious Siberian giant holes found in recent years has concluded that it is a warning sign of a deadly threat to northern regions as the climate warms.

Scientists from the respected Trofimuk Institute of Petroleum Geology and Geophysics insist the process by which a series of craters formed was caused by the melting of gas hydrates and the emission of methane.

This accumulates in a pingo - a mound of earth-covered ice - which then erupts causing the formation of the strange holes that have appeared on Russia's Arctic fringe.

A pingo believed to be poised to explode 'at any moment' is now being constantly monitored by a Russian space satellite in an attempt to catch the moment when the eruption occurs.

They believe the process is similar to the Bermuda Triangle phenomenon which saw the disappearance of of ships and aircraft. This was caused by a vast eruption of methane below the Atlantic Ocean. The scientists also warn of a dire threat to both towns and cities in the extreme north, and natural gas exploration facilities and associated pipelines.









The Yamal hole is a unique object for science. We did not have any chance to study such phenomenon before. Pictures: Vladimir Olenchenko/Trofimuk Institute of Petroleum Geology and Geophysics

Dr Igor Yeltsov, deputy director of the Trofimuk Institute, said in Novosibirsk after a visit to the most famous of the newly-formed craters: 'In the last decades, temperatures have climbed and caused the release of gas hydrates. This resembles a nuclear reaction.

'Last year I compared it with the Bermuda Triangle, because, according to our theory, the cause of this is a mass yield of methane. The volume of methane during transition from a solid to a gaseous state increases about 150 times. The Yamal hole is a unique object for science. We did not have any chance to study such phenomenon before.

'The importance of the study increases if we take into account that six kilometres from the crater is a main gas pipeline, and 36 kilometres away is the Bovanenkovo gas deposit.' Such eruptions 'can easily repeat', he warned.

'We need follow closely the processes with permafrost and gas hydrates on Yamal,' he said. 'We underestimate the danger that methane brings to us.' The risks to coalmines of methane are well appreciated yet but it carries far wider dangers.










A new expedition to one of the mysterious Siberian giant holes found in recent years has concluded that it is a warning sign of a deadly threat to northern regions as the climate warms. Pictures: Vladimir Olenchenko/Trofimuk Institute of Petroleum Geology and Geophysics

'At the moment, most gas hydrates are safely hidden, but there are territories, like Yamal, where they begin to decompose and we must closely monitor these areas. I think that now it is premature to speak about some global catastrophe, as if it is a theory of 'methane threat', but if the warming continues at the same pace, our northern cities, located close to Yamal - such as Salekhard, Nadym, and Novy Urengoy - are in real danger.'

He explained: 'We propose to develop a big project aimed at monitoring the situation on Yamal. Taking into account active natural gas exploration, and ambitious projects like port Sabetta, we need to understand very well the natural processes so as to provide safe infrastructure.'



Dr Vladimir Olenchenko, senior researcher at the institute: 'We spotted one more big pingo not far from the crater.' Picture: Vera Salnitskaya

If exploration is to go ahead on a large scale - as is planned in such regions - then 'we must provide proper scientific monitoring'.

The new expedition to the crater - known as B-1 - was to enable a 3D model of its structure, and to monitor the way it rapidly turned into a lake. Dr Vladimir Olenchenko, senior researcher at the institute, said: 'It is established now that initially at this site there was a pingo, quite a common phenomenon for this area. But this exact pingo, according to (historic) space photographs, was bigger than others and had a more regular, round shape.'

The scientists believe the methane either emerges through cracks from depths of the Earth, or that it is directly caused by 'the decomposition of gas hydrate'.



The new expedition to the crater - known as B-1 - was to enable a 3D model of its structure, and to monitor the way it rapidly turned into a lake. Picture: Vladimir Olenchenko/Trofimuk Institute of Petroleum Geology and Geophysics

'According to our data, there is a hydrate layer 60 metres deep. We suggest that due to global warming some part of the hydrate decomposes, it accumulates in the pingo and then led to the eruption.' They are examining the lake in detail - is it around 25 metres deep - since its form may lead them to other erupted pingos, possibly alerting to future dangers.

'Now in the area around the crater there is active melting of the layers of ground ice, which form thaw slumps' - Arctic landslides or sinking

This is 'more evidence of global warming'.

'We spotted one more big pingo not far from the crater,' he said. 'We will not say the exact location of the pingo, because journalists or scientists could try and go there, and it is very dangerous.








'Now in the area around the crater there is active melting of the layers of ground ice, which form thaw slumps.' Pictures: Vladimir Olenchenko/Trofimuk Institute of Petroleum Geology and Geophysics


'This pingo can potentially explode at any moment. According to the preliminary estimates this pingo is bigger than the one that preceded the famous crater. We will monitor this pingo remotely from space. Now we are trying to make the list of the features to easily determine if the pingo is potentially dangerous.'

Yamal is seen as high risk, while other permafrost regions, for example Yakutia (Sakha Republic), would need a 6-7C warming to be vulnerable. Dr Yeltsov said: 'It is not all permafrost areas that are in danger, having pingos associated with methane which can explode.  There are areas where the permafrost is rather stable.' The institute has proposed to create Yamal research centre under the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. A decision is awaited.



Dr Igor Yeltsov, deputy director of the Trofimuk Institute: 'We propose to develop a big project aimed at monitoring the situation on Yamal.' Picture: Vera Salnitskya

Yamal - in the Yamal-Nenets autonomous district of northwest Siberia - has natural gas reserves here of around 55 trillion cubic metres.

'We constantly try to communicate with different structures - government, Gazprom, research institutes - to develop research projects together.' Work is underway with oil giant Total on gas hydrates on Yamal. 'We have several joint projects with them.' He warned: 'Methane deposits, according to various estimates, count for about 200 trillion cubic metres. Gas hydrates hide million times more methane.















How did the crater change from July 2015 untill September 2015. Pictures: Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous region governor's press-service, Vasily Bogoyavlensky, Vladimir Pushkarev

'Now we face serious changes of temperature all over the Earth. Part of this large scale process, only the tip of the iceberg, we call global warming. It leads to the fact that gas hydrates lose their solid condition. One of the examples of this process is the Yamal crater. There are two main theories of its appearance, but both of them are based on methane as the main cause of the formation of the crater.'

Crater B-1 - totally some 60 metres deep - was first noticed last year. It sparked a flurry of interest around the world, and speculation on how this phenomenon was caused, ranging from meteorites, to stray missiles, to UFOs from outer space. Another crater known as B-2, some 20 km from B-1 - is ringed by 30 'baby' or 'satellite' craters.
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Re: 🚩 Global Climate Chaos ☠️
« Reply #324 on: September 27, 2015, 03:36:10 am »

Earth's Sixth Mass Extinction Has Begun and Could Endanger the Human Race, U.S. Study Confirms
Quote

Research Articles ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
Accelerated modern human–induced species losses: Entering the sixth mass extinction
Gerardo Ceballos,  Paul R. Ehrlich,  Anthony D. Barnosky,  Andrés García, Robert M. Pringle and  Todd M. Palmer + Author Affiliations
Science Advances 19 Jun 2015: Vol. 1, no. 5, e1400253 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1400253
http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/1/5/e1400253
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Re: 🚩 Global Climate Chaos ☠️
« Reply #325 on: September 27, 2015, 04:17:29 pm »

The Emergency Climate Movement
Margaret Klein Salamon, The Climate Mobilization | September 26, 2015 11:35 am

We are living in a state of planetary emergency. To have a chance of averting the collapse of civilization and the destruction of the natural world, we must mobilize our society on the scale of World War II to achieve net zero greenhouse gas emissions [1] at wartime speed. The fact that we have already heated the world to such dangerous levels and show little sign of stopping, is evidence of widespread institutional failure. We cannot expect anyone else to save us. We must organize to save ourselves.


The Mainstream Environmental Movement: Avoiding Climate Truth   

The aforementioned truth—while daunting and overwhelming— has the potential to be utterly transformative, for individuals and for society as a whole. Yet it has been too often soft-pedaled by environmental organizations and communicators who advocate incrementalism over boldness, vagueness over specificity and personal behavior change over systemic change.

These strategies, in an attempt to be palatable and politically “realistic,” are abdicating the climate movement’s greatest strategic asset: the truth. Embracing the truth was at the heart of Gandhi’s Satyagraha campaign, the Civil Rights Movement, the Velvet Revolution and the vast majority of triumphant social movements through history.

The Emergency Climate Movement: Embracing Climate Truth

In recent months, a new, increasingly powerful segment of the climate movement has been taking shape. A coalition of those who openly recognize the existential threat of the climate crisis and advocate for a solution that is scientifically realistic and morally tenable: emergency mobilization.

San Diego Rally for Mobilization, March, 15. Photo Credit: Jerry Phelps

The Climate Mobilization (TCM), a one-year old group that I founded and direct, has been a central part of this hopeful shift away from carbon gradualism—slowly reducing emissions while effectively maintaining business as usual. Philip Sutton, a member of TCM’s advisory board, puts this shift in perspective in his excellent paper, Striking Targets:
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“Over those last 27 years, while all the research, activism and negotiation has been going on, the climate has actually become dangerous. So, the key goal now must be to provide, at the 11th hour, real protection for the vulnerable people, species and ecosystems of the world. The principal struggle must shift, from the clash between no action and some action, to the crucial struggle between those who want to constrain reform to levels that are not too disruptive and those who want action that will provide highly effective and timely protection.”

In other words, isolated actions such as the Obama Administration’s Clean Power Plan, putting a price on carbon or even policies aiming for net zero emissions by 2050, are no longer sufficient.

Perhaps if we had implemented these measures 30 years ago, they would have been adequate to maintain a safe climate. But that time has passed. Only emergency action—a mobilization of our entire economy and society—will protect us now.
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We must stop emissions in years, not decades. It is time to align our demands and language with the truth.   

In June, Reverend Lennox Yearwood, Jr. and Tom Weis, leaders in the climate movement and members of TCM’s advisory board, echoed TCM’s call for zero emissions by 2025 by writing in “America’s Zero Emissions Imperative“:

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“Some will no doubt call this bold national goal unrealistic, but they would underestimate the innovative genius and social conscience of the American people. America has a long and proud history of overcoming seemingly insurmountable odds (consider World War II, Apollo program and Abolitionist movement). What is unrealistic is thinking we can put off for decades action that is desperately needed now to ensure our survival as a species.”

Tom Weis followed up on that article by writing an open letter to President Obama, calling on him to set reducing U.S. emissions to net zero by 2025—through an “all hands on deck societal mobilization at wartime speed”—as the U.S.’s commitment in the upcoming UN climate talks in Paris.


This letter is the single strongest display of public support for emergency climate mobilization that has ever been made. Signers include Lester Brown, Terry Tempest Williams, Mark Ruffalo, Ed Begley, Jr., David Suzuki, Winona LaDuke, Tim DeChristopher, Yeb Sano, Josh Fox, IPCC Coordinating Lead Author Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, the former chair of the Australian Coal Association, the founder of the Woods Hole Research Center, the founder of the Global Catholic Climate Movement, the founder of the New Evangelical Partnership for the Common Good, the former secretary of the California Environmental Protection Agency and the four co-founders of The Climate Mobilization.


The Climate Mobilization: Catalyzing the Emergency Climate Movement

I developed the idea for the Pledge to Mobilize—a denial-fighting, power-building tool—while earning my PhD in clinical psychology and working as a psychotherapist. Working with a team of co-founders, allies and consultants all over the world, we turned an idea into a reality and formed The Climate Mobilization. The pledge is a one-page document that any American—and, since we have expanded internationally, anyone on earth—can sign, it is a tool designed to help people fully face climate truth and channel the deep emotions that arise into effective political engagement.


New York City Mobilizers, Aug. 15 after a Teach-In in Battery Park City

The pledge is a public acknowledgment that the climate crisis threatens the collapse of civilization, as well as call for the U.S. to initiate a WWII-scale climate mobilization to eliminate our national net greenhouse gas emissions by 2025 and enlist in an international effort to mobilize off fossil fuels and restore a safe global climate. The pledge also contains a set of political and personal commitments. Signers agree to support elected officials and political candidates who have pledged to mobilize with their vote, as well as time or money and to spread the truth of climate change and the Pledge to Mobilize, to others.

The pledge encourages active hope and political empowerment. Using the WWII metaphor, we illustrate a time in which the U.S. successfully mobilized against an existential crisis. The pledge challenges people to grow their awareness, cope with the reality and become active agents for effective change by spreading climate truth and sharing the Pledge to Mobilize with others.

The Pledge to Mobilize has been signed by more than 2,400 Americans and international allies including Winona LaDuke, Marshall Saunders, the Founder of Citizens Climate Lobby; Catharine Thomasson, Director of Physicians for Social Responsibility; Randy Hayes, the Founder of Rainforest Action Network; Paul Gilding, former head of Greenpeace and author of The Great Disruption.

The pledge has also been gaining momentum with political candidates and elected officials. Recent signers include: Des Moines Mayor Frank Cowie, Iowa Legislator Dan Kelley, San Jose City Councilor Ash Kalra, Des Moines City Councilor Skip Moore, San Fransicso Mayoral candidate Amy Farah Weiss and Florida congressional candidate Alina Valdes. Councilman Ash Kalra and Mayoral candidate Amy Farah Weis can be seen taking the Pledge to Mobilize on video.

We have recently started a Mobilize Iowa campaign in which we take the Pledge to Mobilize directly to the 2016 presidential candidates. Our current nation-wide initiative is the Moral Mobilization, which will run from now—coinciding with the Pope’s visit—through the Paris talks. The Moral Mobilization seeks to amplify and concretize Pope Francis’ message of “ecological conversion.” During Moral Mobilization events, community leaders will read from the Encyclical and publicly Pledge to Mobilize as they call on Congress, the White House and all levels of government, to do the same.
The Emergency Climate Movement is just getting started. We understand that everything we love is on the line and that inaction or insufficient action will lead to unfathomable catastrophe. In response, we are redefining “realistic” to what is necessary and true. We hope you join us.

For a more in-depth version of these arguments, in a beautifully illustrated PDF, see The Climate Mobilization’s Manifesto: The Transformative Power of Climate Truth.
For the scientific case for Emergency Mobilization see RECOUNT by David Spratt and the Case for Mobilization by Ezra Silk and Margaret Klein Salamon.

[1] When I say “Net zero emissions,” I mean that, it may not be possible to eliminate all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in the short timeline that The Climate Mobilization calls for. If so, the emissions that remain will be balanced out through carbon-negative techniques such as reforestation, permaculture and biochar. This vision of “net zero emissions” does not include corporate land grabs or schemes in which the U.S. discounts its own emissions through foreign carbon sequestration. Further, it is a stepping stone to the U.S. eliminating all remaining GHG emissions and becoming carbon negative. For more information, see the Pledge to Mobilize or the Case for Mobilization.

http://ecowatch.com/2015/09/26/emergency-climate-movement/

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Atmospheric CO2 - Increase Since 1800

Mauna Loa Observatory | NOAA-ESRL Data

As of Sept. 13 - 19, 2015 + 120.61 ppm
Quote

Mass extinctions due to rapidly escalating levels of CO2 are recorded since as long as 580 million years ago. As our anthropogenic global emissions of CO2 are rising at a rate for which no precedence is known from the geological record with the exception of asteroid impacts, another wave of extinctions is unfolding.
« Last Edit: September 27, 2015, 05:37:30 pm by AGelbert »
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AGelbert

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Re: 🚩 Global Climate Chaos ☠️
« Reply #326 on: September 27, 2015, 08:16:15 pm »
What part about the REDUCTION in photosynthetic efficiency from INCREASED carbon dioxide caused HEAT do you fossil fuelers not get?

Here's the biosphere nuts and bolts of it:

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Climate Myth...

CO2 is plant food

Earth's current atmospheric CO2 concentration is almost 390 parts per million (ppm).  Adding another 300 ppm of CO2 to the air has been shown by literally thousands of experiments to greatly increase the growth or biomass production of nearly all plants.  This growth stimulation occurs because CO2 is one of the two raw materials (the other being water) that are required for photosynthesis.  Hence, CO2 is actually the "food" that sustains essentially all plants on the face of the earth, as well as those in the sea.  And the more CO2 they "eat" (absorb from the air or water), the bigger and better they grow. (source: Plants Need CO2) [/color]

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An argument made by those who prefer to see a bright side to climate change is that carbon dioxide (CO2) being released by the burning of fossil fuels is actually good for the environment. This conjecture is based on simple and appealing logic: if plants need CO2 for their growth, then more of it should be better. We should expect our crops to become more abundant and our flowers to grow taller and bloom brighter.

However, this "more is better" philosophy is not the way things work in the real world. There is an old saying, "Too much of a good thing can be a bad thing." For example, if a doctor tells you to take one pill of a certain medicine, it does not follow that taking four is likely to heal you four times faster or make you four times better. It's more likely to make you sick.

It is possible to boost growth of some plants with extra CO2, under controlled conditions inside of greenhouses. Based on this,  'skeptics' make their claims of benefical botanical effects in the world at large. Such claims fail to take into account that increasing the availability of one substance that plants need requires other supply changes for benefits to accrue.  It also fails to take into account that a warmer earth will see an increase in deserts and other arid lands, reducing the area available for crops.

Plants cannot live on CO2 alone; a complete plant metabolism depends on a number of elements. It is a simple task to increase water and fertilizer and protect against insects in an enclosed greenhouse but what about doing it in the open air, throughout the entire Earth? Just as increasing the amount of starch alone in a person's diet won't lead to a more robust and healthier person, for plants additional CO2 by itself cannot make up for deficiencies of other compounds and elements.

What would be the effects of an increase of CO2 on agriculture and plant growth in general?

1. CO2 enhanced plants will need extra water both to maintain their larger growth as well as to compensate for greater moisture evaporation as the heat increases. Where will it come from? In many places rainwater is not sufficient for current agriculture and the aquifers they rely on are running dry throughout the Earth (1, 2).

On the other hand, as predicted by climate research, we are experiencing more intense storms with increased rainfall rates throughout much of the world. One would think that this should be good for agriculture. Unfortunately when rain falls in short, intense bursts it does not have time to soak into the ground. Instead, it  quickly floods into creeks, then rivers, and finally out into the ocean, often carrying away large amounts of soil and fertilizer.

2. Unlike Nature, our way of agriculture does not self-fertilize by recycling all dead plants, animals and their waste. Instead we have to constantly add artificial fertilizers produced by energy-intensive processes mostly fed by hydrocarbons, particularly from natural gas which will eventually be depleted. Increasing the need for such fertilizer competes for supplies of natural gas and oil, creating competition between other needs and the manufacture of fertilizer. This ultimately drives up the price of food.

3. Too high a concentration of CO2 causes a reduction of photosynthesis in certain of plants. There is also evidence from the past of major damage to a wide variety of plants species from a sudden rise in CO2 (See illustrations below). Higher concentrations of CO2 also reduce the nutritional quality of some staples, such as wheat.

4. As is confirmed by long-term  experiments, plants with exhorbitant supplies of CO2 run up against  limited availability of other nutrients. These long term projects show that while some plants exhibit a brief and promising burst of growth upon initial exposure to C02, effects such as the  "nitrogen plateau" soon truncate this benefit

5. Plants raised with enhanced CO2 supplies and strictly isolated from insects behave differently than if the same approach is tried in an otherwise natural setting. For example, when the growth of soybeans is boosted out in the open this creates changes in plant chemistry that makes these specimens more vulnerable to insects, as the illustration below shows (at link).

Plant defenses go down as carbon dioxide levels go up, the researchers found. Soybeans grown at elevated CO2 levels attract many more adult Japanese beetles than plants grown at current atmospheric carbon dioxide levels. Science Daily; March 25, 2008. (Credit: Photo courtesy of Evan Delucia)


More than 55 million years ago, the Earth experienced a rapid jump in global Carbon Dioxide levels that raised temperatures across the planet. Now, researchers studying plants from that time have found that the rising temperatures may have boosted the foraging of insects. As modern temperatures continue to rise, the researchers believe the planet could see increasing crop damage and forest devastation. Science Daily; Feb. 15, 2008

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Global Warming reduces plant productivity. As Carbon Dioxide increases, vegetation in Northern Latitudes also increases. However, this does not compensate for decreases of vegetation in Southern Latitudes. The overall amount of vegetation worldwide declines

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6. Likely the worst problem is that increasing CO2 will increase temperatures throughout the Earth. This will make deserts and other types of dry land grow. While deserts increase in size, other eco-zones, whether tropical, forest or grassland will try to migrate towards the poles. Unfortunately it does not follow that soil conditions will necessarily favor their growth even at optimum temperatures.

In conclusion, it would be reckless to keep adding CO2 to the atmosphere. Assuming there are any positive impacts on agriculture in the short term, they will be overwhelmed by the negative impacts of climate change.

Added CO2 will likely shrink the range available to plants while increasing the size of deserts. It will also increase the requirements for water and soil fertility as well as plant damage from insects.

Increasing CO2 levels would only be beneficial inside of highly controlled, enclosed spaces like greenhouses.

Basic rebuttal written by doug_bostrom

UPDATE July 2015:


The negative effects of climate change far outweigh any positive effect from increased CO2 levels.

http://www.skepticalscience.com/co2-plant-food.htm

The fossil fuel industry has been trying to push that STUPID, "CO2 is great for plants" baloney for at least two decades. Yeah, they use CO2. Yeah, they NEED CO2. Yeah, More CO2 means they can absorb it better and grow faster.

HOWEVER, they don't do ANY of those things when they are forced outside the BAND of temperature and other conditions that are sine qua non for them. It's BIOSHERE MATH 101.

The fossil fuel industry is pushing the CO2 happy talk TOTALLY out of context, as you are trying to do. The desertification and deforestation is NOT being counterbalanced by the greening of colder areas now accessing more CO2 due to warming.

What part of this do the fossil fuelers not understand?



He that loveth father or mother more than me is not worthy of me: and he that loveth son or daughter more than me is not worthy of me. Matt 10:37

AGelbert

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Re: 🚩 Global Climate Chaos ☠️
« Reply #327 on: September 27, 2015, 10:52:58 pm »

The Time is NOW.
He that loveth father or mother more than me is not worthy of me: and he that loveth son or daughter more than me is not worthy of me. Matt 10:37

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Re: 🚩 Global Climate Chaos ☠️
« Reply #328 on: September 28, 2015, 02:53:48 pm »
Fearless World War CO2 War Correspondent Agelbert Reports from the Battle Front. 

And now, some news from the World War CO2 front.     




Please Pass this news of the progress in the pitched battle to save our biosphere from destruction by irresponsible people. Maybe it will help some of them to learn to read.  At any rate, it is guaranteed to ruin the day of fossil fuelers! 

He that loveth father or mother more than me is not worthy of me: and he that loveth son or daughter more than me is not worthy of me. Matt 10:37

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Re: 🚩 Global Climate Chaos ☠️
« Reply #329 on: September 29, 2015, 08:18:40 pm »
Wondered if you saw this. I find this very encouraging. Frankly, I never thought I'd hear about anything like this guy, Jay Faison. He was on NPR today.

http://news.yahoo.com/republican-megadonor-urges-talk-climate-change-solutions-180041894--politics.html

I never heard of him before today, but he sounds like an endangered species...a Republican with good sense. It will be interesting to see if he can have a real impact. According to what he said, his polling reveals that even 55% of conservative Republicans believe climate change is real now.



Thanks for the tip, Eddie. I hadn't heard about him either. Maybe sanity is catching on among the elite.   
He that loveth father or mother more than me is not worthy of me: and he that loveth son or daughter more than me is not worthy of me. Matt 10:37

 

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